3. INTERPRETIVE DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION

This chapter presents what is considered to be developmentally most important to understand within the region. It provides a review of the natural resource base, the human resource base, the infrastructure base, agriculture and fisheries, industrialization, urbanization and the settlement system, and the institutional framework. These are generally described in terms of the existing situation or practices, trends, and where applicable, sustainability.

3.1 NATURAL RESOURCES

3.1.1 Landforms, soils, and landuse

The Northeast Region encompasses an area of 24,200 km² (Figure 1). Principal rivers include the Surma and Kushiyara rivers, which drain the eastern part, the Kangsha River which drains the western part and the Kalni and Baulai rivers which drain the central part. These rivers all discharge into the Meghna River a short distance upstream of Bhairab Bazar. The Old Brahmaputra River and its distributary channel, the Lakhya River form the western boundary of the region. The downstream reach of the Old Brahmaputra River (below the Lakhya offtake) has been virtually abandoned and only carries flow during the flood season. The main source of flow into the Old Brahmaputra/Lakhya River is from spills from the Jamuna/Brahmaputra River just upstream of Bahadurabad.

The region is comprised of six main landforms (Figure 2): the Sylhet depression, lowland floodplains, alluvial fans, terraces, and uplands. Most of these landforms are of fluvial origin, although some have been modified by tectonic subsidence or uplift. Land use relates closely to topography, soil, and flood depth, time, and duration. Approximately 50% of the region lies below 8 m elevation; 25% lies below 5 m (PWD datum).

The Sylhet Depression is a low-lying bowl-shaped basin covering about 25% of the region or 6,000 km². Virtually all of this land is below 8 m and is flooded to depths of 5 m and more during the monsoon. Saucer-shaped, seasonally-flooded, interfluvial areas called haor characterize this unit; the small permanent lakes in the lowest pockets are called beels. The main rivers traversing the Depression include the Surma, Kalni, Kushiyara, Baulai, and Dhanu. These rivers are characterized by highly sinuous, meandering sand-bed channels with cohesive banks. Channel shifting occurs erratically, and consequently the Depression is covered by a maze of ancient channel scars, abandoned distributaries, and oxbow lakes. Soils consist of grey or bluish grey clay, black herbaceous peat and yellowish grey silt. Alternating beds of peat and peaty clay are common in beels and haors. Historically, much of the depression was forested with hijal Barringtonia racemosa and koroch pongamia pinnata, a key habitat for many species of fish, waterfowl, and other species. During the last two centuries, land use has been altered to meet the needs of an ever-expanding human population. The forest has been consumed and in its place, winter season rice is now being cultivated. Submersible embankments, which confine the rivers within their channels during pre-monsoon storms, have been constructed to protect some of this rice. However, the combination of embankments, deforestation, changes in sediment deposition patterns, and poor biological management have adversely affected fisheries production.

The Lowland Floodplains were created as a result of deposition and erosion from the Surma, Kushiyara, Meghna, Old Brahmaputra, and Jamuna Rivers. This landform covers about 55% of the region or 13,260 km². Land elevations typically range from 16 m to 9 m on the Surma/Kushiyara floodplain, from 22 m to 9 m on the Old Brahmaputra floodplain, and are less than 7 m on the Meghna floodplain. This landform includes channel deposits such as point bars and fills, overbank deposits such as natural levees and crevasse splays, and fine-grained flood basin and back-channel deposits. The soils of the Surma/Kushiyara floodplain are mainly alluvial silts and clays while the Old Brahmaputra floodplain consists of poorly stratified fine sandy to clayey silt. The main cropping pattern within the Surma/Kushiyara floodplain is at least one, and often two, rice crops annually. In the Old Brahmaputra and Meghna floodplains, the dominant cropping pattern is at least one rice crop in combination with a rabi crop. To improve monsoon crop production on this landform, river control works including full flood embankments with drainage regulators have been constructed at various locations. The infrastructure has disrupted easy and timely fish migration which has adversely affected fish abundance.

The Piedmont Floodplains are found along tributary streams that join the larger mainstem rivers and cover about 4% of the region or 960 km². Land elevations range from 24 m to 9 m. Principal piedmont streams include the Khowai, Manu, Sutang, Dhalai, and Juri Rivers which flow northwards from the Tripura Hills in India to join the Kushiyara River. Gradients of the streams are generally steeper than the mainstem rivers and are characterized by meandering sand-bed channels which have often developed natural levees of sand and silt. The dominant cropping pattern is two rice crops annually.

The Alluvial Fans are found along the foot of the Meghalaya Plateau and cover about 6% of the region or 1490 km². The fans result when steep mountain streams exit from their canyons and spread over the flat, unconfined land of the Lowland Floodplains and Sylhet Depression. The decrease in channel gradient and reduction in velocity as the streams leave their canyons causes deposition of sand and gravel sediments which take the form of a fan-shaped or conical delta. The long-term aggradation on the fans appears to be more or less in balance with the lowering of the land due to subsidence. Principal streams which have developed alluvial fans include the Someswari River, Jadukata River, Umium River, Jhalukhali River, and Dauki/Piyain River. Typically, elevations range from 16 m to 12 m in the west and from 11 m to 9 m in the east. The dominant cropping pattern is two rice crops annually.

The Terraces occur along the western edge of the region and confine portions of the Old Brahmaputra River. This landform covers about 2% of the region or 500 km². It has been raised by uplifting and faulting so it is no longer subject to inundation by normal flooding. Elevations range from 10 m to 8 m and the soils are comprised of Madhupur clays. The dominant cropping pattern is two rice crops followed by a rabi crop.

Uplands occur as outliers extending into the region from the Tripura hills and cover about 8% of the region or 1970 km². These hills are composed of weathered and poorly consolidated sandstone, siltstone, and conglomerate. Where the land has been left in its natural state, it has a cover of upland forests, thickets or grasses. Cultivated areas are predominantly used for tea, although some rubber, pineapple, and other citrus fruits are produced here.

3.1.2 Water

The principal catchments which drain from India into the region are:

• Meghalaya Hills which form the northern boundary of the project and drain 13,466 km² of steep mountains along the southern face of the Shillong Plateau;
• The Barak River basin which drains 25,263 km² in the states of Assam, Manipur, and Mizoram; and the
• Tripura Hills which drain an area of 6845 km² from the state of Tripura.

Figure 3 shows the pattern of mean annual rainfall over the region and its adjacent catchments during the period 1961-1990. The rainfall pattern is clearly dominated by the island of high rainfall centred near Cherrapunji. From this centre, rainfall decreases radially in all directions across the Northeast Region and its tributary areas but at a decreasing rate. The temporal variation in mean annual rainfall was assessed using 51 rainfall stations that operated over the period 1901-1990. Two remarkable features were noted:

• A gradual and slowly accelerating increase in rainfall over the region;
• A more rapid and rapidly accelerating increase in the variability of rainfall over the region.

These conclusions suggest, quite strongly, that the regional climate has been changing over the last 90 years, and changing at an accelerating rate.

Total surface water supplies to the region excluding the Old Brahmaputra River are 173 km³ (estimated annual mean). Of this, 40% originates as rainfall over the region and 60% as rainfall over the Indian catchments. An estimated 95% of the total surface water supply runs off during the period between May 1 and November 30. During this period tributary streams draining the Meghalaya and Tripura catchments are characterized by very flashy floods which rise to a peak in a day and recede in a day or two. These floods carry high sediment loads are often accompanied by channel instability and erosion and can have a disastrous effect on the region's agriculture and infrastructure. However, even the main lowland rivers such as the Surma-Baulai, Kushiyara-Kalni and Meghna Rivers can display a very rapid rise and fall in water levels during flood times. The main monsoon rise typically peaks between August and October. Almost 60% of the region, principally the Sylhet Depression, Sylhet Lowlands and Meghalaya Lowlands, may be inundated to a depth of 1 m or more during the peak of the monsoon (based on 1:2 year floods: SODAPS). At this time deltaic and lacustrine sedimentation occurs where the main rivers enter the deeply flooded portions of the region. This creates an aquatic environment which supports a vibrant open water fishery, an extensive inland water transport system, and numerous other products and services. These conditions however constrain agricultural development where land is flooded too deeply to produce monsoon season crops, where boro crops are damaged by pre-monsoon flash floods, and where sand deposition renders agricultural land unfit for any purpose. Flooding also encroaches on homestead space, damages infrastructure, and at times takes human lives. Figure 4 shows a generalized representation of the flooding extent during the recession of the 1988 flood (based mainly on NOAA sattelite imagery).

During the past two decades, water resources infrastructure has been provided to about 30% of the agricultural land or 3950 km² to facilitate flood management; some of this area is provided with major surface water irrigation as well. The singular focus of these schemes was on increasing rice production, but the projects also disrupted fisheries migration routes, reduced wetland habitat, and hampered navigation.

An estimated 5% (8.5 km³) of the total surface water supply is available in the region from 1 December and 30 April. During these months, water is required for irrigation (rice and rabi crops), for some domestic uses (washing), for some industrial use (cooling), to provide an overwintering habitat for fish, to sustain biodiversity within the wetlands, and to maintain navigation routes. The volume of water used to provide irrigation during these months is 3 km³ (an estimated 4500 km² are irrigated) and indications are that there is little scope to expand further the surface water irrigation volume. So doing would result in small incremental gains in rice production and have significant adverse impacts on all other uses.

Ground water is used for irrigation, potable water, and industry in the region. Annual available ground water recharge is estimated at 3.16 km³. At present, about 1.52 km³ is being utilized annually to irrigate about 2130 km² of land. A further 0.29 km³ is used annually for potable water and industrial supply. Irrigated area could be significantly increased overall, but signs of over-abstraction are present in particular locations.

3.1.3 Water quality

Surface water quality is of serious concern. The most urgent concern is the public health impact of domestic waste contamination of surface water. Water-borne disease is common; so much so that it is the main cause of death of children under five years of age. The reasons for this are clear: the prevalence of sanitary latrines in rural areas is low (15% of households), and sewage collection, wastewater treatment, and properly-managed municipal garbage disposal sites in towns are non-existent.

The surface waters of the region also suffer from industrial pollution. There are many industrial facilities in the region that discharge untreated liquid effluents into surface water: textile industries, oil and gas facilities, fish- and tea- processing plants, a Kraft pulp and paper mill and an ammonia fertilizer plant at Fenchuganj. Discharges from these last two facilities are known to have caused fish contamination and kills in the deep water upper reaches of the Surma and Kushiyara Rivers. In particular, the mill reportedly discharges more than 550 kg per year of mercury, a highly toxic heavy metal. Pollution control is the responsibility of the Department of Environment, and pollution control legislation does exist, but DOE's enforcement capabilities are very weak. For the future, industrial pollution need not increase as fast as the industrial sector itself, but this would require shifting to a preventative approach emphasizing the use of cleaner process technologies.

Ground water quality in the region is suitable for irrigation, but high concentrations of manganese and iron in some locations affect potable water supplies.

3.1.4 Fisheries

Fisheries is a major economic sector of the region generating about Tk 2400 million annually. The general perception is that overall fish catch and fish biodiversity have been declining in the region over the last half century. The reasons for this are:

• Resource access and tenure regimes that provide little incentive for biological management practices oriented to medium- and long-term returns.
• Modification and containment of the aquatic environment through infrastructure designed to increase agricultural production, to facilitate road and water transport, or to control the lateral movement of rivers but which almost entirely lacks provision for fisheries needs.
• Industrial effluents from Fenchuganj fertilizer factory and Chhatak pulp and paper mill which are discharged into the Surma and Kushiyara Rivers, contaminating and killing fish.
• Extensive deforestation of hijal, koroch, and other inundation-tolerant wetland trees which are a key support of high fisheries production in this environment.
• Sedimentation of many beels has converted them from permanent to seasonal status thereby reducing fish production.

Significant improvements in these trends will be required to avert continued deterioration of fisheries productivity and diversity.

3.1.5 Forestry

Trees are found in four basic settings: upland natural forested areas, lowland natural forested areas (swamp forest), upland tea gardens, and on homestead high land. The latter two types are cultivated. Trees of all types provide nesting and roosting sites for many of the remaining wildlife species of the region, and are key to their continued survival.

Natural forested areas throughout the region are under increasing pressure, due to expansion and intensification of agriculture and the growing demand for and monetization of forest products. The extent and condition of natural forest for the region as a whole is difficult to characterize. A 1979 review indicates that the Forest Department has jurisdiction over 1200 km² of Sylhet and Mymensingh Districts - all of this is upland area - but most has been encroached upon by agriculturalists, degraded by wood gathering and grazing, or monetized, sold off to an interested party; processes which continue. In addition, upland forest trees are found on higher lands under other government agencies and on private land.

Remnant stands of lowland forest species (mainly hijal, koroch, and barun crataeva nurvala) are still widely distributed and common in the wetland areas, as they provide several highly valued services. None are on Forest Department land, though Department permission is required - in theory - for felling any mature tree. Stands of swamp forest trees protect homestead and embankment highlands from wave erosion - a serious problem, especially around the larger haors where larger waves can be generated. They provide shelter and feeding areas for fish, both directly and indirectly when coppiced branches are placed in fishery areas. And they produce a sustainable (if correctly managed) harvest of branches and leaves for use or sale.

Swamp forests, like upland forests, are under pressure from agriculture, gathering and grazing, and monetization. These processes appear to be very rapid and accelerating for lowland forest remnants. Some are still under traditional community tenure, which is proving to be vulnerable to economic and outside pressure. Natural regeneration is quite rapid, however: one area that has been totally protected from human activity for nine years is in excellent condition, with many established trees of half mature height. And afforestation is technically possible and evidently can be economically attractive, judging from the very recent development of private nurseries and plantation programs by fisheries lessees in a few haors.

3.1.6 Other biological resources

The region's wetlands support large natural wetland plant communities. These are extensively exploited by local people, particularly the poor, and provide significant amounts of food, fodder, fuel, building material, and medicines to them. Quantification of this production and its socioeconomic distribution is still needed.

The wetlands also support an internationally significant population of migratory waterfowl (384,479 individuals were counted during the January 93 migration peak). Populations of many other terrestrial and semiaquatic wildlife species, including a number of threatened species, are also found. Stocks of both waterfowl and other wildlife are declining generally, with hunting (for sport and for domestic and international trade) and habitat destruction being the main threats. The strong international demand for some wildlife species presents both a threat and an opportunity, depending upon whether yields and populations can be managed sustainably for each valued species.

3.1.7 Natural gas

Known recoverable reserves of natural gas in the region are 242 thousand million m³ which is 81% of Bangladesh reserves. Location of gas fields is shown in Figure 5. The total value of this gas to the region at current prices is estimated at Tk 675 thousand million. Known recoverable reserves will last an estimated 20 years. Estimated total reserves in place in the region are 559 thousand million m³ which is 93% of the Bangladesh total.

About 35% of the natural gas produced in the region is utilized in the region; the remaining 65% is piped to other parts of Bangladesh (see Table 5). Two cement factories - at Ampur and at Jalalabad - will come on stream in the region during the next several years though utilization rates have not been forecast. Table 6 presents natural gas consumption by category for all of Bangladesh.

3.1.8 Quarrying and gravel mining

The largest quarry in the region is at Bholaganj on the alluvial fan of the Dhalai River north of Sylhet. The gravel pit was first opened in the early 1900s for construction of Chittagong harbour and construction of Kaptai dam. It is reported to have supplied on the order of 500,000 m³ of stone material for the dam. The quarry extends over an area of about 2.5 km² and consists of gravel from 600 mm diameter down to sand composed of granite, gneiss, chert and greywacke. In the 1970s the quarry was expanded and an 11 km long ropeway transport system was constructed to move materials from Bholaganj to Chhatak. The project was intended to produce 170,000 m³ per year. However, during the Independence War the facilities were damaged and manpower and barge transportation were used when operations resumed. In 1974 the volume of materials in the quarry were estimated as shown in Table 7.

Similar large sand and gravel deposits can be found on other large alluvial fans in the region, notably on the Jadukata River and the Dauki/Piyain River fan near Jaflong. Exploitation of these sites is occurring by manpower and small boat transportation. Operations on the Jadukata River were observed in October 1992 where sand and gravel from near the fan apex at the Indian Border was transported by barki boats down to Fazilpur. Here it is stockpiled for transport by larger deep draft vessels. At the time of the site visit there were in the order of 5,000 to 6,000 barki boats working on the river. It was estimated that 71,500 m³/month of sand and 32,500 m³/month of gravel were being produced at this time. This represents a direct income of Tk 17 million to the local economy. However, operations are seasonal due to restricted navigation during the dry season.

3.2 HUMAN RESOURCES

3.2.1 Basic demography

The Northeast Region has 16% of the total population of Bangladesh or an estimated 17.5 million persons. The region's population increased by an annual compound rate of 2.2% during the last intercensal period (1981 to 1991). Low population densities occur in the Sylhet Basin and the hilly areas; high densities occur in and around urban centres. Population distribution based on 1991 district and municipal census data and on adjusted 1981 thana data are shown in Figure 6.

The average household within the region contains 5.33 persons and there are 105 males to 100 females which ratio is slightly lower than the national average. The average household size increased during the period 1960 to 1981 and then declined slightly between 1981 and 1991. It is still higher than in 1960. The proportion of population younger than 14 years of age is high, more than 46% in the 1981 census, which characterizes a very high dependency ratio. The high proportion of people now of reproductive and working age has profound implications for the fertility and employment situation. The proportion of younger population is somewhat lower in the 1991 census. In the lower age groups, females outnumber males, while for higher age groups the reverse is true.

The Crude Birth Rate per 1000 population ranges between 35 and 50 in most parts of the region; this is very high. The Total Fertility Rate at more than 4 births per woman throughout her reproductive phase is also very high. The Crude Birth Rate and the Total Fertility Rate have however shown a declining trend since 1975. Average life expectancy at birth is 56 years, a marginal increase - of about one year - since 1981. Difference in life expectancy by sex is negligible.

3.2.2 Educational levels

The level of literacy is very low. According to the 1991 census, in most districts of the region the literacy rate is less than 20% for all age cohorts. The school attendance rate (1981 census) was less than 20% in most parts of the region for those aged 5 to 24 years. School enrolment of girls is low at all levels (see Table 8) and decreases at higher educational levels. Girls constitute 45% of the total number of students at the primary level, 36% at the secondary level, and 26% at the higher secondary (college) level. The enrolment rate of females has increased significantly during last ten years, particularly at the secondary and the college level.

The government aims to achieve a gross enrolment rate of 85% by 1995 and 95% by the year 2000. Many of the schools are privately funded, and this trend is continuing. Principal deterrents to schooling appear to be economic (the need to assist the family in economic activities) and distance to school.

3.2.3 Health levels

The overall health situation is poor. Relevant indicators include the region's Crude Death Rate which is more than 11 per 1000 population, the Infant Mortality Rate below one year of age which ranges from 106 to 138 per 1000 live births, and the Child Death Rate which is as high as 15 per 1000 children aged one to four in some parts of the region. The Child Death Rate is higher for females. The situation improved marginally during the eighties, but in some areas it is still worse than the national average ten years ago.

To reduce the Infant Mortality Rate and the Child Death Rate, an Extended Program of Immunization is being implemented nationally in collaboration with UNICEF. Under this programme, children are vaccinated against six measles, tetanus, whooping cough, polio, diphtheria, and tuberculosis. This has helped in bringing down the mortality rate among children in many areas. Still, more than 75% of children under two years of age have yet to be immunized in about half of the region. The government has set a goal under the Extended Program of Immunization to cover as much as 85% of children by 1995.

Nationally, government expenditures for social services account for less than 20% of the development budget, of which one-quarter is for health and family planning. Public health infrastructure is mainly oriented around government hospitals at the district and thana levels. These facilities were decentralized in the 1980s. At present, each thana has one health complex with several graduate physicians, some laboratory facilities, and a few beds for in-patients. In addition, family welfare centres are gradually being set up in all the unions. Currently, there are 5256 persons per government hospital bed in the region, which is almost the same as ten years ago. Population per health worker is shown in Table 9.

Private health services and facilities in the region are at least as important as those provided by government, and most are located in areas having large numbers of people who work abroad. This highlights the significance of foreign remittances to the region, and the plausibility of private sector participation in providing social services as envisaged in the national development strategy.

3.2.4 Cultural traditions and values

Rice, pulses, and fish are the main food items. The diet is dominated by rice which is generally consumed at every meal. With increasing poverty and landlessness, wheat has replaced rice at one or more meals in many households. Cereals account for more than 80% of energy intake, more than 70% of protein intake and more than 60% of fat intake.

People grow their own food in rural areas where subsistence farming is still the dominant mode of production. Agricultural activities are undertaken mostly using family labour. The household is the basic economic unit where all members participate according to roles defined by societal norms and traditions. Male household members usually work in the field, preparing the land, tilling, sowing, planting, weeding, and harvesting. Female members work at home performing mainly post-harvest activities which include threshing, drying, husking, winnowing, and storing. Women also grow fruits and vegetables in and around the homestead and look after poultry and livestock.

Purdah restricts women's activities outside the home. The dominant view is that women do not need higher education, and should devote their life to cooking, rearing children, and other home-building activities. With increasing economic hardship, women are engaging themselves in extra-household economic activities, particularly those women from the lower income strata of the population. Women's gainful employment is also being promoted by the NGO community.

Male domination is socially and legally protected and promoted through laws of inheritance, marriage and divorce which favour men. Polygamy is still in practice. These values are being challenged by educated youth and new values are slowly emerging as increasing urbanization and mass media penetration.

3.3 INFRASTRUCTURE

This section describes the infrastructure base, an understanding of which is essential to planning further investments in water management. This description covers existing infrastructure and planned infrastructure - where the information is available. The infrastructure described here includes roads, rural electrification, communications, water transportation, potable water, sanitation, and water management works.

3.3.1 Rural electrification

The Rural Electrification Board functions through consumer owned autonomous co-operatives (PBSs). At present, programmes are being implemented to extend the distribution grid and to construct and upgrade substations in various districts in the region, including Sylhet, Moulvibazar, Habiganj, Netrokona, Sherpur, and part of Mymensingh. The length of existing lines in the distribution system by PBS is provided in Table 10. Plans to extend the rural power grid further are not yet final. The existing grid is shown in Figure 5.

The Power Development Board (PDB) maintains a grid within those areas not covered by the REB but it is much less extensive, serving mainly larger communities.

The primary end use for this power at present is irrigation. Consumption for this use peaks in March at about 85% of total consumption.

3.3.2 Communications

Telephones are the region's primary existing communications infrastructure. At present there are 9306 lines, of which 8424 are connected to subscribers and in use. There is an existing, unfulfilled demand for an additional 8767 lines; 8000 new lines are planned and have been approved. The status of these lines, by exchange, are presented in Table 11.

3.3.3 Potable water

Access to safe drinking water has improved considerably in recent years. Efforts are being made to ensure rural water supply through sinking of three types of tube wells: shallow, deep, and deepset Tara pumps. In 1985, there was one public hand tube well for about 150 persons, now there is one operational tube well for about 134 persons. In 1981, only about half of the households in the region had access to potable water. Presently, more than 80% of the population has access to potable water for drinking according to official statistics. Tubewells however tend to be associated with wealthier and more influential households. Parts of the region essentially do not have access to tube wells, and potable surface water is scarce, difficult to obtain, and of poor quality. Universal access to potable water has been set as a target to be achieved within the Fourth Five Year Plan period (1990-95).

3.3.4 Sanitation

Primary sanitation facilities consist of sanitary latrines. Waterseal latrines, using low-cost concrete ring and slab, are being promoted by the Directorate of Public Health Engineering (DPHE). Presently, only about 15% of the households in the region possess a fixed latrine. In some parts of the region, this proportion is less than 4%. However, considerable improvement has been observed during the last decade. The production index of DPHEs sanitary latrines has quadrupled and the number of production and sales centres has doubled since 1981. In addition, many NGOs and private firms are now in the business.

By 1995, sanitation coverage of 35% of all households has been targeted by Government. Planned actions include the promotion of do-it-yourself (home-made) pit latrines and low-cost waterseal (concrete ring and slab) latrines on the one hand, and advocacy and social mobilization activities on the other.

3.3.5 Water management

During the past two decades, there has been considerable progress in providing infrastructure for improved management of water resources in the region. A summary of the current development status is provided in Table 12.

A total of 66 major surface water resource projects have been constructed or are nearing completion. These include full flood control projects, partial flood control projects, drainage improvement projects, and major surface water irrigation projects. All are administered by BWDB; their potential net benefitted area is estimated to be 395,000 ha. Nearly all were constructed during the past two decades.

A review of these projects revealed that most (80%) have some positive impact - though not always for agriculture, the intended beneficiary. It was also observed that negative impacts were fairly common as a result of the water management infrastructure. These included effects of river confinement, loss of land to infrastructure, and destruction of fisheries habitat. The most noteable conclusion of the review was that where significant input from the local community was provided (for example, where projects grew out of local efforts) overall project performance was significantly better.

3.3.6 Water transportation

Water transport is essential to the region's transport needs. Boats are more than twice as fuel-efficient as trucks and, at prevailing freight rates, mechanized boats yield high rates of return on capital. Thirteen thana centres depend solely on waterway communication and many of the rural market places in the region have grown up along waterways.

The Inland Water Transport Authority (IWTA) under the Ministry of Shipping, Ports and Inland Water Transport administers navigation and water transport. There are about 1400 km of classified navigation routes in the region. These are used by larger commercial boats - carrying passengers or freight - operating in the formal sector. The inland waterways of the region are shown in Figure 7.

Changes are taking place in the region's river network. Sedimentation has reportedly reduced the navigability of the Surma River. The lower Kushiyara River is infilling with sediment and the Kangsha from Gaglajor to Mohanganj can no longer be used for navigation by the larger commercial boats.

Country boats make an important contribution to the rural (informal sector) economy of the region. The Country Boat Pilot Project estimates that as much as 60% of all employment in transport is in country boats. This employment is predominantly rural and under relatively equitable conditions. In much of the deeply flooded area, inland waterways are the only form of transport for goods and passengers and with the mechanization of country boats people now travel more than before. It enables them to find employment in urban centres while still living in nearby villages. Boats thus enhance rural mobility and contribute to alleviating the problem of rural unemployment. They also provide direct and efficient market access for rural people and their goods.

There are operational problems. Infrastructure obstructs navigation routes. For example, submersible embankments are not always sufficiently submerged to allow boats to pass; it was observed within Shanir Haor that 14 of 17 embankment cuts (in 1992) were made to facilitate navigation. Aquatic grasses create navigation problems and the absence of landing facilities hamper efficient country boat operation.

3.3.7 Roads and railways

The Roads and Highways Department (RHD) is responsible for national highways (374 km in the region) that connect regions; regional highways (165 km) that connect major towns to each other and to national highways within a region; and most Feeder Roads Type A (1395 km) that connect thana centres to the highways. The Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) is responsible for Feeder Roads Type B (870 km) that connect rural growth centres to thana centres or higher-order roads; and Rural Roads Types 1, 2, and 3 (length unknown). The rail and road network (national, regional, and feeder roads) is shown in Figure 8.

In 1990, the proportions of total freight (tonne-km) and passengers (person-km) moving by road were 50% and 60% respectively. By 2000, these are expected to increase to 60% and 70% respectively. Current estimated annual traffic growth rates in the region are 6.3 to 6.8% for trucks and buses, and 7.7 to 10.9% for microbuses, cars, babytaxis, and motorcycles.

No new roads are planned for the region, but several ongoing and planned projects address road improvement and maintenance. The Dhaka-Sylhet-Jaintiapur national highway is to be improved under the Second Road Improvement Project (estimated cost US$90 million, ADB/Japan financing under discussion). Six contracts are ongoing under the Feeder Roads Improvement Project (US$35 million for the six contracts, ADB funded). In addition, a GOB project addresses maintenance and improvement of Feeder Roads, Type A (US$4.45 million per year from 1993). Several projects under LGED include study or implementation of road improvements in the region; the value devoted to Northeast Region roads is substantial but difficult to estimate (well over US$4 million per year).

Investments for the region proposed by the Road Master Plan include US$2.6 million per year for 1991-1996 and US$7.8 million per year for 1996 to 2000, focused mainly on the Dhaka-Sylhet highway, the routes radiating out of Sylhet, and the Bhairab Bazar-Kishorganj-Mymensingh-Netrokona routes. Investments proposed by RHD include straightening of the Dhaka-Sylhet highway, a new route from Joykalash-Mohanganj to link Sylhet to Netrokona, and a bridge at Bhairab Bazar. Existing roads in the Sylhet basin have very high maintenance requirements due to wave erosion, but current and proposed projects do not really address this problem.

Railway lines servicing the region run from Dhaka to Sylhet, and Dhaka-Mymensingh-Bhadurabad. Their proportion of freight carriage is small (nationally, about 2%).

3.4 AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES

The economy of the region is based almost entirely on agriculture and fisheries. Both have relatively low productivity, accounting for 70% of the regional labour force but producing less than 40% of the gross regional product. As a result, gross product per person is about 10% below the national average. Both also have relatively low economic growth rates (the national agricultural and fisheries growth target is 3.6% per year, while the overall national target is 5% per year), with the result that the region's overall growth probably cannot keep pace with national growth unless the there is a shift from agriculture and fisheries to activities with more growth potential.

3.4.1 Crops

The contribution of crops to the gross regional product is estimated to be Tk 31,346 million. Total agricultural production in the region is increasing gradually, but not as fast as population. Declining production per person is impacting most seriously on poor people. There is some inter- and intra-regional movement of foods, but it appears that the poor are becoming worse off nutritionally. Nationally, daily intake represented 91% of calorie requirements in 1965, and only 83% in 1988. Girls and women suffer the most, and the situation is worst during the pre-monsoon months when prices are higher. This situation is aggravated by the inability of the poor to take precautionary measures against food shortages.

3.4.2 Livestock

Livestock contribute an estimated Tk 3840 million to the gross regional product. In terms of working animals, the most important livestock are cattle, which provide the necessary draught power for ploughing, threshing, road and farm transport, and crushing of sugar cane and oilseed. There are an estimated 3.8 million head of cattle within the region, 0.1 million buffalo, 1.0 million goats, 0.1 million sheep, and 11 million poultry. While there have been small increases in all livestock populations over the past 25 years, on a per person basis, only poultry has increased.

3.4.3 Fisheries

The contribution of fisheries to gross regional product is estimated at Tk 2400 million. While there appears to be potential for expansion in fisheries and in value-added related to this sector, fish catch as well as fish biodiversity have been declining. Since fish provide a significant source of protein and the largest source of animal protein, the consequence is reduced per person protein availability.

3.4.4 Land distribution and carrying capacity

In 1977, the number of farm households in the region was 1.1 million and average farm size was 1.5 ha. By 1983-84, the last available year of record, the number of farm households had increased to 1.7 million and average farm size decreased to 0.9 ha. This trend would suggest that the number of farm households is now about 2.6 million and average farm size is about 0.6 ha. The per person availability of cultivable land is estimated to be slightly less than 0.1 ha. While agriculture production has been increasing over this time frame, it has not kept pace with population increases.

However, the production potential of land changes over time. Large increases in rice production have resulted in recent years from technological change, coupled with liberalization of agricultural inputs, and favourable flood conditions. Opportunities for further production increases through technology improvements are unknown. In many developing countries, average annual production increases exceed those currently achieved in Bangladesh (about 3% per year).

3.5 INDUSTRIALIZATION, URBANIZATION, AND INTERNAL MIGRATION

3.5.1 Industries

Industry in the region is predominantly small-scale, notably handloom textiles and rice milling. There are, however, large-scale industries in the Sylhet region in tea, sand and quarrying, oil and gas, and textiles. There are two cement plants and a bleach Kraft pulp and paper mill at Chhatak; an ammonia fertilizer plant at Fenchuganj; private sector fish processing and export plants at Ajmiriganj and Sunamganj, as well as a BFDC (public sector) facility at Dabor; and a garment industry in Dhaka region; females dominate employment in the garment industry. The large-scale industries are in various states of economic health; it appears likely that the fertilizer plant at Fenchuganj will be replaced by a new plant at Chittagong. Two new cement factories - at Ampur and Jalalabad - are scheduled to come on stream during the next several years. A ball pen manufacturing plant is presently under construction near Moulvibazar. Construction and industry account for about 6% each of gross regional product.

3.5.2 Urban areas

Urban areas as defined by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics include municipalities, thana headquarters and other urban centres around industrial complexes. Urban centres develop around sites of administrative and economic importance, and where public utilities and services (roads, electricity, communications, and so on) are available to support non-agricultural economic and other activities.

The rate of urbanization accelerated during the 1980s, partly as a result of the upgrading of thanas. The thana (for a time called upazila) was made an important establishment in the local government system, and thana upgrading included transferring to them government personnel from most of the line ministries. Although the system was changed in 1992, thana physical infrastructure was substantially developed by this time.

The employed urban population is mainly composed of government employees, professionals, industrial workers, workers in the service sector, and traders. Urban-rural economic and cultural links are still very strong. A considerable proportion of urban dwellers have homestead and cultivable land in rural areas. It is common for men to stay in the towns for employment while wives and children stay in the village, which has contributed to the higher male/female ratio in towns.

While settlements are spread quite uniformly throughout the region, the most densely populated areas are municipalities; all are legally constituted urban centres. Presently, the region has 14 municipalities out of 95 in the whole country. Among these are eight district headquarters and six thana headquarters where 6% of the total municipal population of the country reside. They account for 4% of the region's population. Among the municipal towns in the region, two have populations of more than 100,000, whereas five have populations below 25,000. The eight largest municipalities with their populations are presented in Table 13.

3.5.3 Internal migration

Migration reflects the state of employment and social mobility of an area. In the past, some districts of the region, particularly Sylhet and Sunamganj, were gaining population by net in-migration. However, since 1974, most of the region, except Dhaka region, has lost population to net out-migration.

Nationally, urban-to-urban and rural-to-urban migration are about the same in quantitative terms. However, the migration rate from urban-to-urban is higher. While the urban-to-urban migration rate is highest for the male population, the opposite is true for females, for whom rural-to-rural and rural-to-urban migration are higher. Migration rates have been increasing.

3.6 KEY INSTITUTIONS

3.6.1 Water resources development

Ministry of Irrigation, Water Development and Flood Control (MIWDFC) has overall responsibility for water resource development in Bangladesh. This responsibility is exercised through the Bangladesh Water Development Board, the Water Resources Planning Organization, and the Flood Plan Coordination Organization.

Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), a semi-autonomous agency of the GOB since 1972, is responsible for planning and design, construction, and operation and maintenance of flood control, drainage, and major irrigation works. Since the creation in 1959 of BWDB's predecessor agency, the water arm of the East Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority, an impressive number of water control structures (about 5000) and many kilometres of embankment (about 6000) have been constructed. But, the organization has numerous difficulties:

• Programming that exceeds local currency availability;
• Lengthy and cumbersome government procurement, tendering, consultant recruitment, fund release, and land acquisition procedures;
• Division of public sector implementation between different ministries and agencies of ministries, and between central and thana administrations;
• Difficulties with involving farmers and farmer groups in implementation and in subsequent operation and maintenance; and
• An inability to take into account farmer's needs, existing practices, and local circumstances in project planning and design.

The consequences of the above are: 

1. Persistent and worsening start-up delays; 
2. A doubling of the time needed to implement most projects and programs thereby reducing economic returns and viability; 
3. Substandard construction resulting in early deterioration and shortened economic life; and 
4. A widening implementation gap between programmed project implementation targets and achievements.

Flood Plan Coordination Organization (FPCO) was created in early 1990 to coordinate execution of the Flood Action Plan.

Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO) was created in 1983 as the Master Planning Organization (MPO). Its mandate was to develop and establish: (1) a comprehensive dynamic assessment of Bangladesh's water resources; (2) a framework for decision making; and (3) a continuous process national water resources planning capability. Accordingly, a National Water Plan was presented in 1986. This was succeeded by a follow-up Phase II National Water Plan Project.

Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) was created under the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development, and Cooperatives in 1984 to provide technical support to the district and thana administrations in the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of local civil infrastructure, including water control structures and embankments. A 1985 GOB decision gave LGED responsibility for operation and maintenance of small BWDB schemes once completed. On a pilot basis, BWDB identified a group of projects for which LGED was to assume responsibility. Several problems emerged: LGED was provided with insufficient funding to carry out its mandate; The projects turned over to LGED were not fully operational at the outset; and LGED staff were generally inexperienced and lacked the technical background to deal with larger surface water facilities effectively. LGED is receiving technical and financial support from various donors to strengthen its capabilities.

Other government agencies also carry out functions directly linked to water resources development:

• Ministry of Food. Food-For-Work (FFW), an initiative of the UN World Food Program with the Ministry of Food, allocates food-grains to BWDB earthwork construction. Grain is disbursed in daily grain payments to the rural poor in exchange for their labour.
• Ministry of Land Administration and Land Revenue. MOL acquires land needed in the construction of civil works. The field staff of the Ministry are insufficient in number which leads to delays in processing land acquisition applications.
• Bangladesh Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization. SPARRSO uses remote sensing data, performs resource surveys, monitors natural hazards (such as flood and cyclone), and creates various products, such as specialized thematic maps; can acquire some new data.

3.6.2 Agriculture and fisheries

Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), in the Ministry of Agriculture, emerged in 1982 as the agency responsible for disseminating crop production information to farmers. The northeast extension division is administered by an Additional Director, posted at Comilla, who supervises four Deputy Directors, one at each District Headquarters. These in turn supervise the work of Thana Agricultural Officers, one at each thana Headquarters. The Thana Agricultural Officer, with technical support from Subject Matter Specialists, supervises the activities of extension agents called Block Supervisors, who in turn are responsible for providing farmers with the latest policy and program information, research findings, and farm management practices.

The activities of BSs are organized on the basis of the Training and Visit system (T&V). Under this system, a union is geographically partitioned into several “blocks” of about 1,000 farm families each, and each block is further divided into eight subblocks. Within each subblock, the BS identifies and works closely with ten contact farmers or “change agents”. The ratio of BS to farm families at present is 1:900. BSs also operate demonstration plots.

The extension service has several identified weaknesses. Despite the emphasis on T&V, the T&V system is not operating as effectively as it could (UNDP, 1989), and about 80% of the improved practices adopted by farmers were not obtained through T&V extension activities, but from farmer observation of demonstration plots (Karim, 1989). The extension service lacks proper links to other agencies involved in the sector. One important example of this is the absence of extension capability to support irrigated agriculture, even though irrigation development contributes substantially to sector growth. And poor communications, especially in the northeast, hinders delivery of extension services to remote areas.

Women landowners, farmers, sharecroppers, horticulturalists, and labourers are served by a small female extension service, but the system has not been very successful. The women extension agents are posted at district towns without transportation or adequate travel allowances, and thus rarely visit even adjacent villages. Their links to research are ineffective and their agricultural training inadequate, and their responsibilities include non-agricultural topics such as health and sanitation. Recent extension policies are de-emphasizing single-sex extension cadres, and have focused instead on (1) integrating men and women agents into a single cadre appropriately, and (2) finding ways to ensure that women agriculturalists get the information they need given that men dominate the extension cadre and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future.

Research is coordinated by the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council and carried out through five major research agencies, each specializing in a particular crop or crops. Four of these have research stations in the region; the fifth, the Bangladesh Sugar Cane Research and Training Institute, does not and is not described here.

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC) is responsible for coordinating the national agricultural research system. The long-term goal of the national agricultural research system is:

“. . . to provide sufficient technologies to sustain increased farm productivity for all agricultural and environmental situations (in support of the national goals and strategies).”

Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) conducts basic and applied research on rice production, and provides comprehensive training on rice cultivation to officials of various agencies. In the northeast, BRRI has a substation at Habiganj for research on deepwater rice and development of cropping systems for deeply flooded areas. Relevant on-going projects include:

• Outreach program for development of site-specific rice technology packages,
• Strengthening program for BRRI's adaptive research training division,
• Accelerated development of BRRI regional stations' physical facilities, and
• Decentralization of rice breeding.

Bangladesh Agriculture Research Institute (BARI) conducts research on non-rice food crops except sugar and tea. Presently, BARI operates a substation at Moulvibazar for citrus fruit research. One relevant on-going project is their `Establishment of a Centre for On-farm Research and Development' program.

Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) is responsible for conducting research on jute. BJRI has a substation in Comilla.

Bangladesh Tea Research Institute (BTRI). Tea is a major crop of the northeast region and a principal export crop. BTRI is located in Srimangal.

Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC), positioned within MOA, was established in 1961 to promote the use of modern agricultural inputs among farmers. Its role has evolved and today its main activities are:

• Marketing and installing minor irrigation equipment, mainly deep tube wells;
• Supplying seed; and
• Distributing fertilizer through Primary Distribution Points.

Irrigation equipment is distributed through an Executive Engineer at the District level. Unit officers posted at thana headquarters report to the Executive Engineer and are supported by pump maintenance mechanics. Appropriately stimulative policies in the past two years (an import ban, duties on pumps and engines, and a regulation “standardizing” engines were all eliminated) have allowed private sector sales of equipment, which in turn has allowed net irrigated area to expand rapidly, and has reduced on-farm equipment prices.

BADC's Field Wing produces and distributes certified seed for most crops, but this accounts for less than 10% of all seeds used. Most seed (about 90%) is multiplied and kept by farmers themselves; less than 1% is handled by the modern private sector (private traders and importers). Increased private sector participation in the development and promotion of new varieties is inhibited by GOB policies: for example, GOB regulations set seed prices and specify that only National Seed Board approved seed varieties may be imported. Other GOB seed programs include testing local and imported varieties, and producing breeder seed.

The fertilizer subsector is changing rapidly. Retail markets and prices are being progressively deregulated, reflecting the GOB's concern for supply availability and prices. In 1982, BADC's distribution monopoly was reduced from one outlet per thana to 75 wholesale outlets for the whole country, called Primary Distribution Points, and prices below Primary Distribution Point prices were deregulated, permitting an expanded role for private wholesalers and retailers. Then, in 1988, BADC offered discounts for large volume lifting, and nominal retail prices fell for the first time. In 1989, wholesalers and dealers were allowed to procure directly from the five area factories and prices fell further.

BADC subsidizes fertilizer from its revenue budget. Triple super phosphate (TSP) subsidies account for about 75% of the total. A sizeable muriate of potash (MP) subsidy also exists, along with an indirect subsidy to BADC for distribution and storage costs.

Bangladesh Rural Development Board (BRDB) is responsible for organizing farmers into cooperatives and providing them with credit. Farmers are organized into cooperative societies (KSS) with the Thana Central Cooperative Associations as the apex organization. The TCCA then provides short-term credit for crop production and medium-term credit for the procurement of draft power, implements and irrigation equipment.

Only about 15% of all agricultural credit is currently provided by institutional sources (TCCA and conventional financial institutions such as Bangladesh Krishi Bank, Bangladesh Samabaya Bank, commercial banks). About 85% of agricultural credit is still supplied by traditional moneylenders who provide quick, uncomplicated access to funds, but at usurious rates that stifle investment expansion. Institutional credit disbursements grew rapidly in the late 1970s and early 1980s but sound banking practices were not adhered to and credit recovery was abysmal (as low as 26% in FY86). The recovery rate has increased to about 40% in response to stringent GOB measures, but the expansion of institutional credit availability has stopped. Grameen Bank, an extremely successful NGO, has extended credit to millions of rural poor, especially rural women, demonstrating in the process that institutional credit can play an important role in poverty alleviation.

Department of Fisheries (DOF) is the line agency of the Government responsible for fisheries management, development, enforcement, statistics, quality control, extension and training. The staff consists of some 4,300 persons, 28% of whom are professionals.

Hotta (1990) notes that the DOF suffers from shortcomings in planning, project implementation, design of extension activities and inter-agency coordination. With regard to the latter, the absence of a clear mandate for the DOF results in “confusing and/or overlapping divisions of responsibility” between DOF and MIWDFC, MLGRDC, FRI, BFDC and thana administrations. There is also a proliferation of staff. Key persons are usually delegated to projects, thus perpetuating weaknesses of DOF's main structure. Insufficient staff are trained in planning, economics, social sciences, management finance, and accounting. The DOF staff and resources are overextended. All funds available for development projects cannot be spent. The absorption capacity of the DOF for more external assistance is nil, and committed assistance cannot be fully utilized.

The Fisheries Research Institute (FRI) was established in 1984. It operates four research stations:

• Aquaculture station in Mymensingh;
• Riverine fisheries station in Chandpur;
• Marine fisheries station in Cox's Bazar;
• Brackish-water fisheries station in Khulna.

There are 59 scientific staff and 105 supporting staff. The FRI is involved in some 26 research projects. There is a need for involvement of DOF in programme prioritization of FRI research activities.

The Bangladesh Fisheries Development Corporation (BFDC) established in 1964, is concerned with developing marine fisheries, Kaptai Lake, fish processing and marketing. A number of fish landing centres have been built around the country and are intended to operate as commercial enterprises. Only those in Chittagong and Cox's Bazar are functioning properly. Another nine (including Dabor centre near Sunamganj) are practically lying idle. The BFDC's financial performance is particularly poor. It loses Tk 50 million annually, and the total liability of the Government now stands at Tk 75 million. Given the generally efficient marketing system for fish which exists in Bangladesh, it would seems difficult to justify a government agency such as BFDC entering into fish marketing and competing with the private sector using public funds.

Department of Environment (DOE), within the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF), is responsible for environmental planning, management, and monitoring. Recently DOE's mandate was expanded, increasing its involvement in environmental impact assessment (EIA) and in providing advice to line agencies on their activities affecting soil and water conservation, forests, wildlife, critical habitats, fisheries, and other natural resources. DOE is linked to the Planning Commission of the Ministry of Planning via the commission's newly-created environmental cell, which screens new projects for environmental soundness.

At present DOE is restricted in its ability to carry out many of its responsibilities, due to insufficient institutional resources such as staff, equipment, and so on. Currently, two initiatives to strengthen the institution are active.

Department of Forests, within the Ministry of Environment and Forest, has historically had the role of protecting Government-managed forests from local people. Gradually, this is evolving towards a more people-oriented role of protecting, maintaining, developing, and using the forests with the help and for the benefit of local populations.

The Forest Department, like DOE, is restricted in its ability to carry out its responsibilities due to insufficient institutional resources. Currently, initiatives to strengthen the institution's monitoring and enforcement capabilities are active.

3.6.3 NGOs

Of the 6,946 registered voluntary agencies in Bangladesh in 1985, 1011 were either located in or had programs within districts covered by the region. Though they tend to be concentrated in the districts near Dhaka they are also found throughout Sylhet region. These agencies are overwhelmingly rural-based, and are involved mainly in social welfare activities. A summary of where the NGOs are located and their primary focus is provided in Table 14.

BRAC is a pioneer of the NGO sector in Bangladesh and started working in the deeply flooded areas of Sylhet in 1972. Presently, it operates programmes throughout the region. Other notable national NGOs having activities in the region include: the Grameen Bank, Proshika, ASA, Caritas, Bangladesh Family Planning Association, Bangladesh National Society for the Blind, HEED-Bangladesh, NGO Forum on Drinking Water and Sanitation, and Concern Women for Family Planning. In addition, local NGOs such as FIVDB, IDEA, and Grameen Jana Kallyan Sangstha have been operating in the Sylhet area and Village Development Society, Samaj Progoti Sangstha, SARA, and others are working in the Mymensingh-Jamalpur area. International NGOs including RDRS, Concern, World Vision and CARE also have activities in the region.

Most of the NGOs follow a “target group approach”, where the landless and women are the target audience. They may be broadly grouped into two categories in terms of their activities: service delivery and catalytic. Some of them have been quite effective in combining “social mobilization” work with that of “rural development”. The major thrust of the NGOs since the eighties has been in the field of social mobilization and rural development, a switch from the earlier thrust on relief and rehabilitation. Their main areas of work are as follows:

• Capacity building and institutional development of the vulnerable groups, particularly the landless and women, through the formation of village-based groups or cooperatives by the “conscientization process”;
• Health and family planning services, particularly community health education;
• Non-formal education, particularly for adults;
• Rural credit;
• Promotion of employment, particularly among rural women, in the field of livestock, poultry, fisheries, and sericulture;
• Training for income generating activities.

Government-NGO collaboration has increased in recent years. The collaboration has been strongest in fields such as health care, education and training, however, recently NGOs have begun to work jointly with organizations such as BWDB. The NGOs are becoming increasingly active in the mainstream development process and many of them are implementing programmes funded by bilateral donors and multilateral agencies.

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